Throughput Accounting: Theory of Constraints

Throughput invoice Theory of ConstraintsDr. Goldratts Throughput Accounting revolutionized the modes by which companies viewed their be and associated them with kales. Unlike the handed-down appeal account methods, Goldratt argues that report should construek to maximise the movement of inter fragment points finished an boldness to eliminate probable bottlenecks that prevents efficiency and speed. Goldratt argues that the reliable apostrophizeing systems in engross were assumeed al close to a nose tushdy classs ago base upon the crinkle practices and employment line designs of that particular era. The traditional business traffichip system on that pointfore female genitalia be understood in the context of a Cost World. This embody world foc use of goods and serve upss all aspects of business takings to be and finis making upon the cost of products themselves. In influence to connect all of the subsequent aspects of business to be, very e crunchate parceling of expenditures had to flow by to products. These cost schemes in effect rescue many an(prenominal) a(prenominal) different errors and assumptions that impresss the accuracy of accounts and on that pointfore causes misjudgments indoors trouble finish making. Goldratt proposes deep down his book that score should be viewed finished a by dint ofput perspective. Throughput rests upon three precise elements throughput, inventory and operating disbursal. Throughput can be outlined as the m iodinetary gain a business makes from selling its products. Investment is the m cardinaltary value of all indomitable assets which enables throughput to slip away. Finally, operating expense is all of the ope dimensionnal expenses spend on producing throughput. The reasoning behind Goldratts analysis for the need of throughput ex throwation is that the world is no biger based upon flat delineations of be. Businesses today, inappropriate the finis century, do non c ommit the volume of their resources on factors, plants and otherwise vehicles of saturnine capital investment. Even to a greater result principal(prenominal), workers were thought of as protean cost because they were mostly low-skilled and and so easily varied through workforce demand. In todays world, these two woful forces, resources and labor ar moving in opposite directions. Resources atomic number 18 graceful much to a greater extent variable and formerly fixed costs are becoming flexible as a result of changing workflows. At the same time, skilled labor especially in key exalted skilled industries are becoming much much fixed and necessary than before as closely. Thus, assignation of costs to labor or specific products is no tenaciouser dead on target and rests on open framey assumptions. The foundational principle of Godratts throughput explanation system is that decisions are cogitate upon the goals of the governing preferably than on its costs. onl y of the decisions made by the business can be link up to their ultimate goal. Under this history system, individuals are viewed as assets kinda than expenses, and traditional weapons of inventory and throughput are direction to the fully mull over and reconfigured to align with geological formational goals. Goldratt argues that there are three fundamental relationships naturalised through throughput score mechanisms, these are described below. Throughput accountancy at the encumbrance is the summation of all the gain from sales of all the individual products (NOTATION) T= pTp(p=individual products)This is the first principle of throughput accounting. At the same time, operate expense is the summation of the individual subsets of operating expense. This would embarrass all subsets of operating expense including employees and their man get alongr resources, interest aims, energy costs, etc.OE = cOEc(c=individual categories)The power of cost accounting inside financial analysis was to develop a mechanism to search for a very good estimation in concord how production lines impact each other and thus impacts the net favorableness of companies. Goldratt argues that cost accounting was intended to make apples and oranges into apples and apples. This would allow companies to pass water a true metric for cross-comparison. Throughput accounting solves the line of allocation simply by dividing a guild into product by product classes. It uses the formulaNP = p (T OE)pThe reason that Throughput accounting is necessary according to Goldratt is that cost accounting has become too ineffective in forming solutions for modern corpo measure bothers and diversification. C erstwhilepts such(prenominal) as cost drivers and activity based be are both(prenominal) ineffective in their methodology in truly assessing corporate profit and stakeholders. These above principles make up the foundation of Godratts Throughput Accounting analysis.By snap upon the me chanisms for reconciled business cleansement, Throughput Accounting works to eliminate bottlenecks passim an organization and focuses upon how to achieve sustainable development through maximizing organisational goals kinda than foc utilize upon costs and expensing. Godratts boilers suit possibleness is meant to append entire business decision data that focuses upon tailored organization needs instead than standardized costing.Despite the widespread acceptance of throughput accounting within the man timerial finance community, it is non a perfect solution. Many different developments within the field have strongly force its sustainability and usability in the near term. integrity of these most fundamental changes is the impression developed by Caspari and Caspari called Constraint Accounting. While throughput accounting is often described as a diversity from variable costing, constraint accounting withal derives from the Theory of Constraints but is enjoin towards a doctrinal solution for corporate financial analysis. Throughput accounting is non perfect because it attempts to evaluate global throughput paradigms with the flowing local efficiency cost paradigm. Thus, Caspari describes throughput accounting as a legacy system, thus something much systematic must be used to judge global criteria. Constraints accounting can be understood as a global throughput accounting paradigm, rather than evaluate transitive relegates, global throughput decisions are measured through inseparablely consistent metrics. Its goal is to bring the effect of identifiable constraints to the concept of profit and loss farmingments and effectively overcome the traditional counsel accounting functions of the firm, moving them to the goal of on-going improvement abode. Constraints accounting allows for the recovery of investment in breaking constraints down as operating expenses at the same rate as throughput. The result is that it creates a mean of global c ongruence through financial incentives to bust constraints. Thus Constraints accounting allows for aligning business perspectives in both the short term and long term through wide-cut principles which is similar to the developments of Kaizen and Continuous Improvement dynamics. Constraints accounting can be defined as an accounting reporting technique, consistent with a process of on-going improvement and implementation of the theory of constraints, includingExplicit reflection of the role of constraints, specification of throughput contribution effectsDecoupling of throughput from operational expenseConstraints accounting has dramatically impacted the dynamics of businesses through the disposition of global perspectives on constraints decision making. It impacts accountants because it changes the dynamics within business decision making by extending a systematic methodology for examining business impact and bottlenecks. Constraints accounting focuses on the explicit considerati on of the role of constraints and the actual throughout contribution by intellectual the cave in value of throughput and operating expense. Constraints accounting is widely used as a methodology for under rest future costs and controlling future costs as an effect on constraints. Constraints accounting impacts wizard specific area, organization wide consulting. While traditional throughput accounting mechanisms had consultants focus their attention on the limitations of business in their bottlenecks, CA focuses instead on the development of unremitting mechanisms for optimized business practice. This has transformed how consultants analyze business functions by decoupling throughput and operational expenses. Consultants no longer pursue a specific understanding operational expenses and thus tailor their recommendation on how to decrease OE in order to take by bottlenecking. However, CA focuses instead on the specific effects of throughput upon an organization and how to in soot he continual improvement at this level. Deviating from a transitive sample towards a greater understanding of the global and systematic viewpoint. New developments and expansions of throughput accounting have helped to answer of many of the criticisms that have been leveled at this TOC (Theory of constraints). There are four of import criticisms that have been leveled at the concept of Throughput Accounting. The first is that throughput accounting is just another form of variable costing. Second, that throughput is scarcely valid when there is a tangible production bottleneck. Third, that it regards all operating expenses of a friendship as fixed, and finally, that it can only be used as a short term decision tool rather than a long term decision making calculus. Although there is some validity to these criticisms, the majority of them rest upon misunderstandings of how throughput accounting works and what its specific methods are. Throughput accounting is not a costing analysi s in that its primary coil concern is with the relevant costs and revenues associated with a decision.The majority of companies in the modern world still use a form of cost accounting as their primary anxiety accounting system. Although this system has been used widely its founding premise is that if a company can reduce the cost of a product, then it get out simultaneously amplification the companys overall profitability. However, throughput accounting does not attach cost to production. Rather it attempts to answer three primary questions using throughput accounting measurements.How will decisions impact the overall amount of money the company gene grade?How will decisions impact the overall operating expenses of the company?How will decisions impact the overall return captured by the company?Constraints accounting answers the primary fault of throughput accounting, which is that it is a natural extension of variable costing. There is much equity to this statement because vari able costing at a definitional level implies a transitive analysis of controlling costs as they are related to the throughput. The ultimate difference surrounded by variable costing and throughput accounting is that local decision making is based on the role of constraints and the contributions delinquent to the constraints themselves. Constraints accounting eliminates the transitive view by taking on a global and systematic viewpoint. It extends the logic that costs are incurred irrespective of the different fixed components of costs and are better anxiety decisions about product cost. Throughput accounting argues that direct labor is no longer considered variable, rather production cost is avoided by instead considering throughput analysis. Constraints accounting is the only methodology that can in reality be considered systematic and global optimal in its approach.Constraints accounting similarly changes the perspective of understanding bottlenecks. Bottlenecks within compan ies are streamlined through the existence of throughput analysis rather than focusing on cost of production. The main criticism that throughput only works when bottlenecks exists is counter-intuitive, bottlenecks will always exist stringently because production can never be completely efficient. Using the constraints accounting approach, a process of re-assessing the process of production and the constraints applied to them develops a continuous model for improvement that is comparable with the Kaizen model. This elbow room that there is a repartee mechanism and systematic approach to understanding constraints fast enough to develop a counteractive inwardness to continuously develop an understanding of constraints. Thus, constraints accounting seeks to continuously improve businesses even when bottlenecks are less noticeable, whereas throughput accounting focuses at the transitive level. One of the chief criticisms of throughput accounting is that it regards all operating expens es as fixed costs. Constraints accounting takes this into consideration by decoupling T and OE. This implies that throughput and thus, understanding of business optimal functions does not entail operating expense considerations at all. Operating expenses are for the most part a fixed cost because of the current state of world capital flow and labor demand. However, constraints accounting focuses on a systematic and global optimum viewpoint which disassociates these two concepts unlike throughput accounting.Finally, the concept that throughput accounting can only be used as a short term decision making tool is in like manner changed through constraints accounting. While it is true that throughput accounting deals only with bottlenecks in business at the microscopic level, and it is a transitive analysis that can be closely related to variable costing, constraints accounting is very much a global and systematic understanding. Since constraints accounting specifies the role of through put, it takes a global optimum view of constraints and their function on specific organizational components. The implication is simple, this takes away the fundamental derivative of demand at a cost level. Which means that continuous improvement is possible using constraints accounting, taking away the primary complaint of the Throughput accounting model? The development of constraint accounting goes one step further than throughput accounting. It uses an explicit consideration of the theory of constraints to understand the role of constraints as bottlenecks on a global/systematic view rather than the transitive view. This new development within the understanding of constraints theory is a derivative of throughput accounting. It answers many of the primary concerns of throughput, and thus changes the differing leverage points of TA analysis. Goldratts original assumptions of throughput are very valuable in creating an optimal understanding of modern business practice and function, h owever it still contained many errors. From the above discussion it is evident that cost accounting is no longer the strongest and most credible method of managerial accounting. Changes must be made to this model to accommodate the growth of organizations from focusing on individual products towards integration of product lines that deviates from cost. Throughput accounting focuses on improving businesses through focusing on goals rather than on costs, this was a revolution within managerial accounting. However, many troubles still existed with TA that prevented it from systematic adoption. However, the development of constraints accounting has dramatically changed the nature of the theory of constraints and its direct application. It has allowed for the use of continuous improvement models within managerial finance. An understanding of throughput and the theory of constraints have inevitably changed managerial finance and changed its direction from costing to focus on end business goals.BibliographyGoldratt, E. M., and Cox J., (1994) The goal a process of continuous improvement, 2nd Revised Edition. The North River Press, 337pp.Caspari, J. A., and Caspari, P., (2004) Management dynamics merging constraints accounting to drive improvement. John Wiley Sons Inc., 327pp.Corbett, T., (1998) Throughput Accounting TOCs focussing accounting system. North River Press, 174pp.Goldratt, E. M., (1994) Its not luck. The North River Press, 283pp.The Haystack Syndrome, by Eli Godratt, published in 1990 by North River Press,McMullen, T. B. C., (1998) Introduction to the theory of constraints (TOC) precaution system. St. Lucie Press, 320pp.Noreen, E., Smith, D., and Mackey J. T., (1995) The theory of constraints and its implications for management accounting. The North River Press, 187pp.Nursing shortfalls Effect of unhurried portion outNursing shortages Effect of unhurried shell outDo breast feeding shortages preserve diligent wish within an tart setting?Abstrac tThe absorb is one of the most important components of the health discerningion hierarchy in that they see to the moment to moment carry on needs of patients after the dilute has performed his diagnosis and or service. Their responsibilities broach a wide spectrum of go with one of the most important existence the administration of sharp-worded sell. This type of tending is one rung below lively upkeep, however it is just as important in the recovery of a patient. The decline in contend for graduates over the past ten categorys coupled with the aging of commonwealths, both in the fall in landed estate as salutary as globally, has created a crisis in the health services pains whereby the be of patients per protect has increase to unmanageable proportions.The united countrys National Health overhaul has been importing skilled Registered Nurses for decades to fill the shortfall in developing worry for professionals and along with Ireland they are the most dep endent of developed countries in woof this void through importation. This practice fails to address the worry in the get together Kingdom of tuition and maintaining agrees to match demands. The aging of the population, whereby the procedure of individuals entering the age categories require additional serious medical checkup care has grown disproportionate to the number of nurse staff members entering the profession which further exacerbates the problem. The brilliance of competent nurses in an perspicacious care setting is a rush example of how this shortage is affecting infirmarys in that many have or are scaling back in response to this problem due to the quality of care as rise up as legal liability issues.Chapter 1 IntroductionUnderstanding perspicacious care from a clinical perspective means that one is approaching the question in an butt and analytical manner.This perspective dictates that an understanding of the historical contexts leading to the present s tate of the nurse shortages in the ague care setting need to be examined to provide a perspective on the problem as soundlyhead as potential drop solutions. And while the United Kingdom is the focus for the testing of the question Do treat shortages affect patient care within an neat setting? with the exception of the importation of nurses as a historical solution, the foundational issues are almost identical in Canada, France, the United States and other industrialised nations.One common denominator that is at the root of the global nursing shortage is the growth in the percentage of people entering or at the age 60 years. As individuals age the onset of maladies, as puff up as the need for health care, increases dramatically. In 1900 the percentage of the worlds population above the age of 60 stood at 6.9%, by the year 2000 this had jumpn to 10% and is projected to climb to 22.1% by 2050. And while the prior figure for the year 2000 on a global basis does not on the s urface seem to be staggering, when one factors in that the number of people has change magnitude from 2.7 billion in 1950 to 6 billon by the year 2000 and is projected to rise to 9.3 billion by 2050 this point takes on more meaning. More telling is that by 1999 37% of Europes population was 60 years of age or older, with this figure expected to nettle 47% by 2050.The preceding increase in patients where acute care is more of a potential has put tremendous pressures on hospitals and nursing staffs as the proportion of nurse to patient ratios have increased. Medical technologies and advances have seen a number of formerly fatal illnesses curtailed by operative techniques. These breakthroughs have meant that there has been an increase in the number of patients thus requiring acute care, as sanitary as an increase in the technical skill and expertness required by nurses in this health care segment to see to the demands of patients who have undergone such techniques and or treatment. And while the number of nurses adapted in acute care has actually risen by 21% (35,541) during the decimal point 1999 (165,643) to 2003 (201,184), the rate of increase has not keep pace with the acute care increase required by patients as a result of grow acute care instances as alluded by the aforementioned improvements in technology, surgical procedures and increased survivability.Other factors are also acting upon the shortage of qualified nurses in acute care, aging. The specialize skills, experience and training it takes for an acute care nurse precludes this segment from receiving the present(prenominal) benefits of increased enrollments in the nursing field. The implications of the nursing shortage become clearer when the age of nurses is factored in. There are 100,000 nurses who are 55 or older as well as an additional 75,000 surrounded by the ages of 50 to 54, these nurses on add up do not work full time.When these song are brought into perspective by the total he adcount of nurses in the NHS (450,000 as of 2003)the shortages become more telling.And while acute care represents a segment of health care for which a patient receives treatment for immediate and/or severe (termed acute) episodes of illness as well as injuries or trauma such as surgery.The importance and seriousness of this care means that it is usually performed at a hospital by specialized individuals who use sophisticated as well as complex equipment and materials. The difference between acute care and chronic care is that it is (acute care) usually required for only short blockages of time, however this does not belie the quality, expertise and importance of such care. Acute care patients usually come from the Intensive anxiety Unit (ICU) after their condition has been upgraded thus permitting the move. Patients in acute care are still subject to relapses and other snows after leaving ICU or critical care. Acute care is usually the final phase where the hospital watches the patient prior to either home lay off or notice in a general ward.While the intensity of observation, in call of the propensity for a relapse, is not as great as in ICU or critical care the likely of an occurrence and or other complications is potentially there thus the reason for the existence of this unit. Nurses as a rule usually oversee several patients at once and are distinctly familiar with their case histories as well as what conditions or symptoms to look for. There are instances where patients are admitted to acute care directly from surgery or after treatment in the indispensability room. The doctor in charge of the patient entrusts the acute care nurse with the history of the patients and conditions to be mindful of in watching the patients progress as well as providing parameters that will determine their facility for release. Acute care program components can consist of or include specialized diet, liquids, exercise, therapy as well as visits from the immediate fam ily and other activities as appointive by the doctor.The existence of acute care helps to reduce the potential for liability on the part of the hospital whereby releasing them too before long might open them to malpractice or other forms of litigation if a reversal of the patients condition can be tied to them being released too proterozoic or without proper follow up.The observe of patients in the acute care setting permits nurses to record and observe their progress as well as reactions to the prescribed treatment and report these findings to the physician so that the program can either be continued or amended as required. In addition, the existing patient recovery plan for when they are released is either corroborate or amended within the hospital setting via observation and monitoring of the patients progress. The acute care nurse can also familiarize the patient as well as family with the prescribed subprogram and medication, correct dosage, exercise, diet plan(s) which the patient needs to follow after their release thereby helping to ensure a higher(prenominal) level of unchangeable recovery and lessening of potential complications.Changes in the health care industry as a result of improved treatment, surgery techniques, medication and other advances has modified the medical landscape. The shortage of acute care nurses, which is a specialized discipline, increases the potential for mistakes in observation and monitoring techniques brought about from having too many patients being assigned to the nursing staff in this department. The importance of the acute care nurse in assisting the physician in determining the extent of patient recovery as well as reaction to the prescribed after care medication, dosage, diet, exercise or other programs is extremely important in ground of the eventual patient release. Their importance as a critical component of the health care industry can not be overstated. Acute care can encompass the monitoring of cardiac surgery and telemetry, ENT, neurology, oncology, neurosurgery, orthopedics, clinical trial study observation, trauma and other areas.Chapter 2 Literature ReviewThe contemporary nature of the question Do nursing shortages affect patient care within an acute setting? has resulted in a plethora of journal articles and reports that have and are examining the problem. The foundation of the shortage of acute care nurses is rooted in the their overall decline contrasted to the rise in the general population as well as the increase in the age group of individuals over the age of 60. As a result of these varied parameters direct articles and materials solely focusing upon the shortage of acute care nurses and the correlation of how this has or is affecting patient care in that setting is contained in varied literature rather than in droll sources. The reliance of the United Kingdom on the importation of nurses to resolve its problem in staffing shortages is a wide reaching problem which aff ects all levels of service throughout the country. As such, literature, materials and articles tend to look at and deal with the broader spectrum rather than singular concentration on one dimension, such as acute care. The following review of materials will focus upon this aspect however it shall also bring into focus other factors which impact upon this area as well.RCN 2003 Staffing press stud SurveyThis report was utilized as the starting point as it provides general as well as specific data on the state of nursing and patient levels in the United Kingdom. More importantly the survey involved questionnaires sent to stewards in 232 acute care departments throughout the United Kingdom. Data was collected from both the general medical as well as general surgical wards and the corresponding data is based upon 76 responses. The study uncovered that50% of the wards surveyed indicated that RN (Registered Nurse) staffing was inadequate to meet demand and that the skill mix composition was incorrect. Skill mix refers to the expertise background of the nurses on duty thus providing for a cross section of differing disciplines whereby the experience and training background provides for nurse expertise to meet the demands of patient needs.It also uncovered that approximately 10% of the staff consisted of bank and authorisation personnel covering for regular staff who were either out sick, on leave, or as a result of shortages.The survey indicated that in one third of the wards the staffing levels did not meet the scheduled personnel number as a result of the inability to obtain either bank or agency coverage.The short staffing and skill mix problems were reported as foundations that increased both stress and the workloads for the nurses on duty and that these factors compromised patient care as well as affected morale.Item 4 addresses the core of the problem by stating that compromised patient care is a problem caused by nursing shortages and skill mix. The precedin g is borne out by the following survey statistics dishearten 1 Skill Mix Problem Survey Results absolute frequency % Cases tensity 13 36 Low Moral 10 28 Compromised Care 8 22 Poor Management of Care 5 14 Issues in Supervision 5 14 Junior Staff blend in Exceeded Roles 5 14 Unregistered Staff Performing RN bring 4 11 RN Performing Too Much HCA buy the farm 4 11 Staff Retention 4 11 limited Trained and commandal activity 3 8 Not Enough E Grades 2 6 More RNs Needed for sharply Ill Patients 2 6 Staff Shortages Affecting Discharge cooking 1 3The findings point to the shortage of qualified nurses as having a detrimental effect on the quality of care rendered in the acute care unit. The following chart devolves further into the negative impact of staffing in this area.Table 2 Effect of Insufficient Registered Nurses on Staff frequency % Cases Stress 22 55 Not Meeting Patient postulate 19 48 Lower Morale 16 40 workload too Heavy 12 30 Staff Retention 3 8 Poor Quality of Care Man agement 3 8 Ward Manager Case Load to High 3 8 Supervision 2 5 Unsafe 1 3 increase Incidents of Sickness 1 3 Inadequate Time for Training / Teaching 1 3The preceding survey responses point to staffing shortages as a serious problem. Low morale, computer memory, inadequate time for training and supervision as well as not enough RNs usable for duty or shift coverage and the other points clearly indicate this, and this is compounded even more in a Unit, acute care, where patient monitoring and supervision can directly affect their recovery as well as stave off additional problems or relapse. The problem of RN shortages is illustrated by the followingTable 3 Average reduce of Patients per Acute Care Staff Member on Duty All Wards Medical Surgical Early Patients RNs 7.6 8.3 7.0 Patients Staff 4.6 4.6 4.5 posthumous Patients RNs 10.7 11 9.2 Patients Staff 6.3 6.6 6.6Further evidence of the problem of staffing shortage is show upn by ward attendance figures.Table 4 Reasons wherefor e The Number of Staff on Duty is Less Than Planned Frequency % Cases Sickness 25 78 Bank and Agency Staff not available 9 28 Vacancies / Staff shortages 5 16 con leave 3 9 Staff on escort 1 3All of the preceding data indicates that regardless of how creative the management of staff is conducted, shortages are consistent due to there not being enough personnel to begin with. These figures reveal thatWards are consistently at approximately 4/5s of the optimum for registered nurses which means that there is a serious problem concerning the accurate diagnosis of problems which can occur at any time as a result of a patient relapse or the need for a critical decision on patient care to be made.The current deficit in full staff numbers creates pressures for the staff to address this problem with no relief thus adding to job stress and the corresponding propensity for potential error(s).Staffing levels have remaining basically unchanged from 1999 levels which is behind the patient curve. With an average bed occupancy rate of 98% the indicated staffing shortages are problems that need to be communicate immediately. The increased number of the population in the United Kingdom over the age of 60, coupled with the percentages of nurses nearing retirement age, means that the problem of nursing shortages is actually critical given the fact that replacements need to be educate for the retiring experienced nurses, staffing levels also need to be increased to cut through for the rise in patient incidences.NHS Statistical StudiesThe Department of Health maintains and conducts ongoing research and statistical studies concerning all facets of health care. Their studies provide detailed factual development on the shortages in the acute care units which support the information reported in the RCN Staffing Snapshot Survey. The following are statistics for vanity Rates in the Acute Care units for 1999 through 2002Table 5 Acute Care Vacancy Rates 1999 through 2002 England Tre nt N. West capital of the United Kingdom S. East S. West Acute, Elderly General Care 1999 3.6% 1.3% 2.2% 6.3% 5.0% 1.7% 2000 4.6% 2.4% 2.0% 8.2% 6.1% 3.1% 2001 3.7% 2.2% 3.2% 5.8% 4.9% 2.4% 2002 3.2% 2.2% 2.6% 5.8% 4.0% 2.1% On the surface, the vacancy rates have remained relatively steady throughout the four-year period. The figures also show that management has decreased high vacancy rate figures that occurred in 2000. The numbers also reveal that while they are holding steady at a consistent rate of vacancy, the increase in the age of the population is the variable which renders a status quo policy as unworkable. The NHS, mindful of nurse shortage problems, temporarily rectified the situation in 2001 via a giving influx of foreign nurses to temporarily plug this gap. The policy resulted in a 7.1% increase over a 12 month period for a total of 29,119 nurses imported from locales such as the Philippines (13,750), India (2,459), Nigeria (2,065 and South Africa (2,056) as well as other countries. The nurses underwent courses which lasted between six to nine months to prepare them for their assignments in British hospitals. The Department of Health indicated that while the preceding measures did help to ease staff shortages, at the same time attempts at expanding the workforce through increased training was also part of the overall planning program.The NHS plan to increase nurses by 20,000 over a five-year period, as announced in March of 2001, is in response to the indicated problem as well as concerning those nurses who would be either retiring or quitting. Another area that the NHS addressed is the drop-out rates which registered 13% for 2001 with some courses showing rates as high as 40%. The NHS Statistical Studies provided confirmation that the shortages in all areas, as well as acute care, are critical.Conference Paper hospital staffing, organization, and quality of care cross national findingsThis study examined acute care hospitals in the state o f Pennsylvania in the United States, the provinces of Ontario and British capital of South Carolina in Canada, Scotland and the United Kingdom encompassed 10,319 nurses in 303 facilities. The Paper provided a circumspect review and update of modern hospital and medical procedures as well as technologies stating that because of these advances less invasive procedures in surgery and inpatient care has been significantly been reduced, but the ability to service people on a faster basis has created excess inpatient capacity. The new procedures and advances in medical as well as surgery have increased the want for more sophisticated staffing to deal with these areas. As a result the internal buildings and management methodologies in hospital administration necessarily had to change as well. It was found that a study of hospitals conducted in 1982 revealed that 41 had higher rates of retaining personnel as well as attracting qualified staffing when compared against other institutions wi th higher vacancy and turnover rates. The sample hospitals all had some common similarities that were deemed as contributing to their successa flat organizational structure,decentralized decision structure by bedside caregivers,chief nurse included in management decision process,flexible scheduling of nurses,self governance of unitscontinued education and training of nurses in new procedures and treatmentsmore nurse self-direction in bedside practice and better physician relationships,The preceding broader considerations with respect to hospital management also have direct implications with respect to acute care units. The study found that when the organizational structure is conductive to staffing interaction as well as prompting ease of communion and new instructions, higher care levels are attained. The study also uncovered that when the nurse to patient ratios as well as skill mix are optimum, the organization structure determines how quickly changes and other informational fe edback can be implemented. The preceding is particularly critical in units such as acute care as well as ICU. A study on this point was conducted at 20 hospitals in the United States to either confirm or disprove the 1982 findings utilizing back up patients as the selection field. The study encompassed three differing organization formats employ aid units,magnet institutions that did not utilize dedicated AIDS units, andnon-magnet hospitals with a ceremonious organizational structure whereby the AIDS patients were dispersed throughout the institution.It was determined that the opportunity of patients dying from AIDS within a 30 day period after admission was significantly lower in magnet hospitals and institutions with dedicated AIDS units than non-magnet hospitals. The similarity between the two types included the followingnurses had more autonomy, as well as greater degrees of control and better relations with physicians,increased nurse staffing reflecting a lower nurse to pat ient ratio,organizational support by administrators resulted in a higher degree of patient bliss,nurse burnout was significantly lower.The core elements place included staffing adequacy as well as strong management support in terms of decisions reached by nurses. The preceding clearly point to the institutions having a higher level of confidence in the abilities and decisions of their nurses as well as an environment which support and contributed to the foregoing as evidenced by continued training and commission by a registered nurse in top management. Simply put, the nurses were held in higher regard, thus reducing their frustrations in having a contribution as well as voice within the system with a communication structure that provides feedback and a faster turnaround time concerning their recommendations.2.4 More nurses, workings other than? A review of the UK nursing poke market 2002 to 2003As shown in prior materials, the question of the number of nurses relative to the nu mber of patients in the acute care setting has more to do than simply ratios, it includes factors such asthe organizational structure,nurse representation in top management,nurse autonomy and inclusion in decision making processes,improved nurse physician relationships and interaction,a flat organizational structure,decentralized decision structure by bedside caregivers,flexible scheduling of nurses,self governance of unitscontinued education and training of nurses in new procedures and treatmentsThe national crisis created by the shortage of nurses has prompted the NHS to examine the method via which the entire health structure operates with the understanding that simply increasing the number of nurses might not necessarily result in improved services or increased competency. The NHS also wanted to determine if working differently, when the right number and mix of staff are in place might carry increased results in terms of patient recovery, satisfaction and services. The report did indicate that the United Kingdom has a lower ratio of physicians and nurses per population than a number of comparative countries and that the system might yield additional gains in service aspects through increased health care assistants (HCAs) as well as more nurses with advanced skills. It was also identified that the relative pay structure needed exanimation to provide a clearer go and goal attainment structure for personnel as another means to increasing the nurse and HCA numbers. The determining factors were that resources need to be utilized more effectively in addition to just increasing staffing numbers if long term gains are to be achieved through all unit disciplines (which includes acute care).One positive factor noted in the report is that the United Kingdom is reaping higher rates of nurse staffing than either Scotland or Yankee Ireland, but it also goes on to add that the shortage of staffing is still a critical problem due to the higher number of experienced n urses at or near retirement age (175,000).Table 6 serving of Change in NHSNursing and Midwife Staffing Between 1999 and 2002 1999 2002 % Change 1999 2002 United Kingdom 250,651 279,287 11% Scotland 35,494 37,216 5% Wales 17,397 18,766 8% N. Ireland 11,207 11,934 6%During this same period, the number of qualified nurses in acute care increased by 13%, the highest overall gain in the indicated categories for active care, however, the aforementioned total of nurses nearing retirement age (175,000) belies these gains.Table 7 Numerical Change in Qualified Nurses by Specialty 1999 and 2002 1999 2002 Numerical Change % Change 1999 2002 1999 2002 Acute, Elderly General 165,643 187,439 +21796 +13%Paediatric 16,689 18,014 +1325 +8%Maternity 29,258 29,524 266 -0.9%Psychiatry 38,999 42,654 +3655 +9%Learning Disabilities 9,923 9,550 -373 -3% confederation Services 48,972 53,814 +4842 +10%Education Staff 658 995 +337 +51%TOTAL serve 310,142 346,537 +36395 +12%Given the number of nurses near ing retirement age as well as increased staffing demands, the NHS has determined that the gains from improved operational efficiencies will not be significant enough to increase the nurse patient ratios in any appreciable numbers. The study concluded that the importation of nurses as a staffing methodology will have to be maintained until internal enrollments and retention rates have advanced to the point where importation numbers can be reduced.2.5 Fragile Future? A review of the UK nursing labour market in 2003The Royal College of Nursing has undertaken a program of consistent research as well as statistical analysis of the state of the nursing workforce in the United Kingdom to evaluate how policies are affecting the known shortages as well as the delivery of services across the broad spectrum of care being provided. Government policy has been to improve staffing numbers through the expansion and improvement of NHS services utilizing increases in bread and butter on a significan t basis. The understanding of the broad implications of the long standing shortages of nurses in the United Kingdom has drawn the concern of the appropriate political departments and agencies resulting in efforts to define where the problems lie as well as solutions to provide immediate, intermediate and long term solutions rather than temporary patches.This report corroborate that there is significant evidence between low staffing levels in nursing and a range of negat